A Framework For Global Electronic Commerce
President William J. Clinton
Vice President
Albert Gore, Jr.
Washington, D.C.
"We are on the verge of a revolution that is just
as profound as the change in the economy that came with the
industrial revolution. Soon electronic networks will allow people to
transcend the barriers of time and distance and take advantage of
global markets and business opportunities not even imaginable today,
opening up a new world of economic possibility and progress."
- Vice
President Albert Gore, Jr.
BACKGROUND
PRINCIPLES
ISSUES
I. Financial Issues
- 1. Customs and Taxation
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2. Electronic Payment Systems
II. Legal Issues
- 3. Uniform Commercial Code for Electronic
Commerce
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4. Intellectual Property Protection
-
5. Privacy
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6. Security
III. Market Access Issues
- 7. Telecommunications Infrastructure and
Information Technology
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8. Content
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9. Technical Standards
A COORDINATED STRATEGY
BACKGROUND
- The Global Information
Infrastructure (GII), still in the early stages of its development,
is already transforming our world. Over the next decade, advances on
the GII will affect almost every aspect of daily life -- education,
health care, work and leisure activities. Disparate populations,
once separated by distance and time, will experience these changes
as part of a global community.
-
No single force embodies our electronic transformation more than the
evolving medium known as the Internet.1
Once a tool reserved for scientific and academic exchange, the
Internet has emerged as an appliance of every day life, accessible
from almost every point on the planet. Students across the world are
discovering vast treasure troves of data via the World Wide Web.
Doctors are utilizing tele-medicine to administer off-site diagnoses
to patients in need. Citizens of many nations are finding additional
outlets for personal and political expression. The Internet is being
used to reinvent government and reshape our lives and our
communities in the process.2
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As the Internet empowers citizens and democratizes societies, it is
also changing classic business and economic paradigms. New models of
commercial interaction are developing as businesses and consumers
participate in the electronic marketplace and reap the resultant
benefits. Entrepreneurs are able to start new businesses more
easily, with smaller up-front investment requirements, by accessing
the Internet's worldwide network of customers.
-
Internet technology is having a profound effect on the global trade
in services. World trade involving computer software, entertainment
products (motion pictures, videos, games, sound recordings),
information services (databases, online newspapers), technical
information, product licenses, financial services, and professional
services (businesses and technical consulting, accounting,
architectural design, legal advice, travel services, etc.) has grown
rapidly in the past decade, now accounting for well over $40 billion
of U.S. exports alone.3
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An increasing share of these transactions occurs online. The GII has
the potential to revolutionize commerce in these and other areas by
dramatically lowering transaction costs and facilitating new types
of commercial transactions.
-
The Internet will also revolutionize retail and direct marketing.
Consumers will be able to shop in their homes for a wide variety of
products from manufacturers and retailers all over the world. They
will be able to view these products on their computers or
televisions, access information about the products, visualize the
way the products may fit together (constructing a room of furniture
on their screen, for example), and order and pay for their choice,
all from their living rooms.
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Commerce on the Internet could total tens of billions of dollars by
the turn of the century.4 For this
potential to be realized fully, governments must adopt a
non-regulatory, market-oriented approach to electronic commerce, one
that facilitates the emergence of a transparent and predictable
legal environment to support global business and commerce. Official
decision makers must respect the unique nature of the medium and
recognize that widespread competition and increased consumer choice
should be the defining features of the new digital marketplace.
-
Many businesses and consumers are still wary of conducting extensive
business over the Internet because of the lack of a predictable
legal environment governing transactions. This is particularly true
for international commercial activity where concerns about
enforcement of contracts, liability, intellectual property
protection, privacy, security and other matters have caused
businesses and consumers to be cautious.
-
As use of the Internet expands, many companies and Internet users
are concerned that some governments will impose extensive
regulations on the Internet and electronic commerce. Potential areas
of problematic regulation include taxes and duties, restrictions on
the type of information transmitted, control over standards
development, licensing requirements and rate regulation of service
providers. Indeed, signs of these types of commerce-inhibiting
actions already are appearing in many nations. Preempting these
harmful actions before they take root is a strong motivation for the
strategy outlined in this paper.
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Governments can have a profound effect on the growth of commerce on
the Internet. By their actions, they can facilitate electronic trade
or inhibit it. Knowing when to act and -- at least as important --
when not to act, will be crucial to the development of electronic
commerce.5 This report articulates
the Administration's vision for the emergence of the GII as a
vibrant global marketplace by suggesting a set of principles,
presenting a series of policies, and establishing a road map for
international discussions and agreements to facilitate the growth of
commerce on the Internet.
PRINCIPLES
1. The private sector should lead.
Though government played a role in financing the initial
development of the Internet, its expansion has been driven primarily
by the private sector. For electronic commerce to flourish, the
private sector must continue to lead. Innovation, expanded services,
broader participation, and lower prices will arise in a market-driven
arena, not in an environment that operates as a regulated industry.
Accordingly, governments should encourage industry
self-regulation wherever appropriate and support the efforts of
private sector organizations to develop mechanisms to facilitate the
successful operation of the Internet. Even where collective
agreements or standards are necessary, private entities should, where
possible, take the lead in organizing them. Where government action
or intergovernmental agreements are necessary, on taxation for
example, private sector participation should be a formal part of the
policy making process.
2. Governments should avoid undue restrictions on electronic
commerce.
Parties should be able to enter into legitimate
agreements to buy and sell products and services across the Internet
with minimal government involvement or intervention. Unnecessary
regulation of commercial activities will distort development of the
electronic marketplace by decreasing the supply and raising the cost
of products and services for consumers the world over. Business
models must evolve rapidly to keep pace with the break-neck speed of
change in the technology; government attempts to regulate are likely
to be outmoded by the time they are finally enacted, especially to
the extent such regulations are technology-specific.
Accordingly, governments should refrain from imposing new
and unnecessary regulations, bureaucratic procedures, or taxes and
tariffs on commercial activities that take place via the Internet.
3. Where governmental involvement is needed, its aim should
be to support and enforce a predictable, minimalist, consistent and
simple legal environment for commerce.
In some areas, government agreements may prove necessary
to facilitate electronic commerce and protect consumers. In these
cases, governments should establish a predictable and simple legal
environment based on a decentralized, contractual model of law rather
than one based on top-down regulation. This may involve states as
well as national governments. Where government intervention is
necessary to facilitate electronic commerce, its goal should be to
ensure competition, protect intellectual property and privacy,
prevent fraud, foster transparency, support commercial transactions,
and facilitate dispute resolution.
4. Governments should recognize the unique qualities of the
Internet.
The genius and explosive success of the Internet can be
attributed in part to its decentralized nature and to its tradition
of bottom-up governance. These same characteristics pose significant
logistical and technological challenges to existing regulatory
models, and governments should tailor their policies accordingly.
Electronic commerce faces significant challenges where it
intersects with existing regulatory schemes. We should not assume,
for example, that the regulatory frameworks established over the past
sixty years for telecommunications, radio and television fit the
Internet. Regulation should be imposed only as a necessary means to
achieve an important goal on which there is a broad consensus.
Existing laws and regulations that may hinder electronic commerce
should be reviewed and revised or eliminated to reflect the needs of
the new electronic age.
5. Electronic Commerce over the Internet should be
facilitated on a global basis.
The Internet is emerging as a global marketplace. The
legal framework supporting commercial transactions on the Internet
should be governed by consistent principles across state, national,
and international borders that lead to predictable results regardless
of the jurisdiction in which a particular buyer or seller resides.
ISSUES
- This paper covers nine areas where
international agreements are needed to preserve the Internet as a
non-regulatory medium, one in which competition and consumer choice
will shape the marketplace. Although there are significant areas of
overlap, these items can be divided into three main subgroups:
financial issues, legal issues, and market access issues.
Financial Issues
customs and taxation
electronic payments
Legal Issues
Market Access Issues
I. Financial Issues
- 1. CUSTOMS
AND TAXATION
-
For over 50 years, nations have negotiated tariff reductions because
they have recognized that the economies and citizens of all nations
benefit from freer trade. Given this recognition, and because the
Internet is truly a global medium, it makes little sense to
introduce tariffs on goods and services delivered over the Internet.
-
Further, the Internet lacks the clear and fixed geographic lines of
transit that historically have characterized the physical trade of
goods. Thus, while it remains possible to administer tariffs for
products ordered over the Internet but ultimately delivered via
surface or air transport, the structure of the Internet makes it
difficult to do so when the product or service is delivered
electronically.
-
Nevertheless, many nations are looking for new sources of revenue,
and may seek to levy tariffs on global electronic commerce.
-
Therefore, the United States will advocate in the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and other appropriate international fora that the
Internet be declared a tariff-free environment whenever it is used
to deliver products or services. This principle should be
established quickly before nations impose tariffs and before vested
interests form to protect those tariffs.
-
In addition, the United States believes that no new taxes should be
imposed on Internet commerce. The taxation of commerce conducted
over the Internet should be consistent with the established
principles of international taxation, should avoid inconsistent
national tax jurisdictions and double taxation, and should be simple
to administer and easy to understand.
-
Any taxation of Internet sales should follow these principles:
It should neither distort nor hinder commerce. No tax system should
discriminate among types of commerce, nor should it create
incentives that will change the nature or location of transactions.
The system should be simple and transparent. It should be
capable of capturing the overwhelming majority of appropriate
revenues, be easy to implement, and minimize burdensome record
keeping and costs for all parties.
The system should be able to accommodate tax systems used by
the United States and our international partners today.
- Wherever feasible, we should look
to existing taxation concepts and principles to achieve these goals.
-
Any such taxation system will have to accomplish these goals in the
context of the Internet's special characteristics -- the potential
anonymity of buyer and seller, the capacity for multiple small
transactions, and the difficulty of associating online activities
with physically defined locations.
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To achieve global consensus on this approach, the United States,
through the Treasury Department, is participating in discussions on
the taxation of electronic commerce through the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the primary forum for
cooperation in international taxation.
-
The Administration is also concerned about possible moves by state
and local tax authorities to target electronic commerce and Internet
access. The uncertainties associated with such taxes and the
inconsistencies among them could stifle the development of Internet
commerce.
-
The Administration believes that the same broad principles
applicable to international taxation, such as not hindering the
growth of electronic commerce and neutrality between conventional
and electronic commerce, should be applied to subfederal taxation.
No new taxes should be applied to electronic commerce, and states
should coordinate their allocation of income derived from electronic
commerce. Of course, implementation of these principles may differ
at the subfederal level where indirect taxation plays a larger role.
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Before any further action is taken, states and local governments
should cooperate to develop a uniform, simple approach to the
taxation of electronic commerce, based on existing principles of
taxation where feasible.
-
2. ELECTRONIC PAYMENT SYSTEMS
-
New technology has made it possible to pay for goods and services
over the Internet. Some of the methods would link existing
electronic banking and payment systems, including credit and debit
card networks, with new retail interfaces via the Internet.
"Electronic money," based on stored-value, smart card, or
other technologies, is also under development. Substantial private
sector investment and competition is spurring an intense period of
innovation that should benefit consumers and businesses wishing to
engage in global electronic commerce.
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At this early stage in the development of electronic payment
systems, the commercial and technological environment is changing
rapidly. It would be hard to develop policy that is both timely and
appropriate. For these reasons, inflexible and highly prescriptive
regulations and rules are inappropriate and potentially harmful.
Rather, in the near term, case-by-case monitoring of electronic
payment experiments is preferred.
-
From a longer term perspective, however, the marketplace and
industry self-regulation alone may not fully address all issues. For
example, government action may be necessary to ensure the safety and
soundness of electronic payment systems, to protect consumers, or to
respond to important law enforcement objectives.
-
The United States, through the Department of the Treasury, is
working with other governments in international fora to study the
global implications of emerging electronic payment systems. A number
of organizations are already working on important aspects of
electronic banking and payments.6
Their analyses will contribute to a better understanding of how
electronic payment systems will affect global commerce and banking.
-
The Economic Communique issued at the Lyon Summit by the G-7 Heads
of State called for a cooperative study of the implications of new,
sophisticated retail electronic payment systems. In response, the
G-10 deputies formed a Working Party, with representation from
finance ministries and central banks (in consultation with law
enforcement authorities). The Working Party is chaired by a
representative from the U.S. Treasury Department, and tasked to
produce a report that identifies common policy objectives among the
G-10 countries and analyzes the national approaches to electronic
commerce taken to date.
-
As electronic payment systems develop, governments should work
closely with the private sector to inform policy development, and
ensure that governmental activities flexibly accommodate the needs
of the emerging marketplace.
II. Legal Issues
- 3.
'UNIFORM COMMERCIAL CODE' FOR ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
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In general, parties should be able to do business with each other on
the Internet under whatever terms and conditions they agree upon.
-
Private enterprise and free markets have typically flourished,
however, where there are predictable and widely accepted legal
environments supporting commercial transactions. To encourage
electronic commerce, the U.S. government should support the
development of both a domestic and global uniform commercial legal
framework that recognizes, facilitates, and enforces electronic
transactions worldwide. Fully informed buyers and sellers could
voluntarily agree to form a contract subject to this uniform legal
framework, just as parties currently choose the body of law that
will be used to interpret their contract.
-
Participants in the marketplace should define and articulate most of
the rules that will govern electronic commerce. To enable private
entities to perform this task and to fulfill their roles adequately,
governments should encourage the development of simple and
predictable domestic and international rules and norms that will
serve as the legal foundation for commercial activities in
cyberspace.
-
In the United States, every state government has adopted the Uniform
Commercial Code (UCC), a codification of substantial portions of
commercial law. The National Conference of Commissioners of Uniform
State Law (NCCUSL) and the American Law Institute, domestic sponsors
of the UCC, already are working to adapt the UCC to cyberspace.
Private sector organizations, including the American Bar Association
(ABA) along with other interest groups, are participants in this
process. Work is also ongoing on a proposed electronic contracting
and records act for transactions not covered by the UCC. The
Administration supports the prompt consideration of these proposals,
and the adoption of uniform legislation by all states. Of course,
any such legislation will be designed to accommodate ongoing and
possible future global initiatives.
-
Internationally, the United Nations Commission on International
Trade Law (UNCITRAL) has completed work on a model law that supports
the commercial use of international contracts in electronic
commerce. This model law establishes rules and norms that validate
and recognize contracts formed through electronic means, sets
default rules for contract formation and governance of electronic
contract performance, defines the characteristics of a valid
electronic writing and an original document, provides for the
acceptability of electronic signatures for legal and commercial
purposes, and supports the admission of computer evidence in courts
and arbitration proceedings.
-
The United States Government supports the adoption of principles
along these lines by all nations as a start to defining an
international set of uniform commercial principles for electronic
commerce. We urge UNCITRAL, other appropriate international bodies,
bar associations, and other private sector groups to continue their
work in this area.
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The following principles should, to the extent possible, guide the
drafting of rules governing global electronic commerce:
parties should be free to order the contractual relationship between
themselves as they see fit;
rules should be technology-neutral (i.e., the rules should
neither require nor assume a particular technology) and forward
looking (i.e., the rules should not hinder the use or development of
technologies in the future);
existing rules should be modified and new rules should be
adopted only as necessary or substantially desirable to support the
use of electronic technologies; and
the process should involve the high-tech commercial sector as
well as businesses that have not yet moved online.
- With these principles in mind,
UNCITRAL, UNIDROIT, and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC),
and others should develop additional model provisions and uniform
fundamental principles designed to eliminate administrative and
regulatory barriers and to facilitate electronic commerce by:
encouraging governmental recognition, acceptance and facilitation of
electronic communications (i.e., contracts, notarized documents,
etc.);
encouraging consistent international rules to support the
acceptance of electronic signatures and other authentication
procedures; and
promoting the development of adequate, efficient, and
effective alternate dispute resolution mechanisms for global
commercial transactions.
- The expansion of global electronic
commerce also depends upon the participants' ability to achieve a
reasonable degree of certainty regarding their exposure to liability
for any damage or injury that might result from their actions.
Inconsistent local tort laws, coupled with uncertainties regarding
jurisdiction, could substantially increase litigation and create
unnecessary costs that ultimately will be born by consumers. The
U.S. should work closely with other nations to clarify applicable
jurisdictional rules and to generally favor and enforce contract
provisions that allow parties to select substantive rules governing
liability.
-
Finally, the development of global electronic commerce provides an
opportunity to create legal rules that allow business and consumers
to take advantage of new technology to streamline and automate
functions now accomplished manually. For example, consideration
should be given to establishing electronic registries.
-
The Departments of Commerce and State will continue to organize U.S.
participation in these areas with a goal of achieving substantive
international agreement on model law within the next two years.
NCCUSL and the American Law Institute, working with the American Bar
Association and other interested groups, are urged to continue their
work to develop complementary domestic and international efforts.
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4. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION
-
Commerce on the Internet often will involve the sale and licensing
of intellectual property. To promote this commerce, sellers must
know that their intellectual property will not be stolen and buyers
must know that they are obtaining authentic products.
-
International agreements that establish clear and effective
copyright, patent, and trademark protection are therefore necessary
to prevent piracy and fraud. While technology, such as encryption,
can help combat piracy, an adequate and effective legal framework
also is necessary to deter fraud and the theft of intellectual
property, and to provide effective legal recourse when these crimes
occur. Increased public education about intellectual property in the
information age will also contribute to the successful
implementation and growth of the GII.
-
Copyrights
-
There are several treaties that establish international norms for
the protection of copyrights, most notably the Berne Convention for
the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. These treaties link
nearly all major trading nations and provide them with a means of
protecting, under their own laws, each other's copyrighted works and
sound recordings.
-
In December 1996, the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) updated the Berne Convention and provided new protection for
performers and producers of sound recordings by adopting two new
treaties. The two treaties -- the WIPO Copyright Treaty and the WIPO
Performances and Phonograms Treaty -- will greatly facilitate the
commercial applications of online digital communications over the
GII.
-
Both treaties include provisions relating to technological
protection, copyright management information, and the right of
communication to the public, all of which are indispensable for an
efficient exercise of rights in the digital environment. The U.S.
Government recognizes private sector efforts to develop
international and domestic standards in these areas. The
Administration understands the sensitivities associated with
copyright management information and technological protection
measures, and is working to tailor implementing legislation
accordingly.
-
Both treaties also contain provisions that permit nations to provide
for exceptions to rights in certain cases that do not conflict with
a normal exploitation of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice
the legitimate interests of the author (e.g., "fair
use"). These provisions permit members to carry forward and
appropriately extend into the digital environment limitations and
exceptions in their national laws which have been considered
acceptable under the Berne Convention. These provisions permit
members to devise new exceptions and limitations that are
appropriate in the digital network environment, but neither reduce
nor extend the scope of applicability of the limitations and
exceptions permitted by the Berne Convention.
-
The Administration is drafting legislation to implement the new WIPO
treaties, and looks forward to working with the Senate on their
ratification.
-
The two new WIPO treaties do not address issues of online service
provider liability, leaving them to be determined by domestic
legislation. The Administration looks forward to working with
Congress as these issues are addressed and supports efforts to
achieve an equitable and balanced solution that is agreeable to
interested parties and consistent with international copyright
obligations.
-
The adoption of the two new WIPO treaties represents the attainment
of one of the Administration's significant intellectual property
objectives. The U.S. Government will continue to work for
appropriate copyright protection for works disseminated
electronically. The Administration's copyright-related objectives
will include:
encouraging countries to fully and immediately implement the
obligations contained in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property (TRIPS);
seeking immediate U.S. ratification and deposit of the
instruments of accession to the two new WIPO treaties and
implementation of the obligations in these treaties in a balanced
and appropriate way as soon as possible;
encouraging other countries to join the two new WIPO treaties
and to implement fully the treaty obligations as soon as possible;
and
ensuring that U.S. trading partners establish laws and
regulations that provide adequate and effective protection for
copyrighted works, including motion pictures, computer software, and
sound recordings, disseminated via the GII, and that these laws and
regulations are fully implemented and actively enforced.
- The United States will pursue these
international objectives through bilateral discussions and
multilateral discussions at WIPO and other appropriate fora and will
encourage private sector participation in these discussions.
-
Sui Generis Protection of Databases
-
The December 1996 WIPO Conference in Geneva did not take up a
proposed treaty to protect the non-original elements of databases.
Instead, the Conference called for a meeting, subsequently held, to
discuss preliminary steps to study proposals to establish sui
generis database protection.
-
Based on the brief discussion of sui generis database
protection that took place before and during the Diplomatic
Conference, it is clear that more discussion of the need for and the
nature of such protection is necessary domestically and
internationally.
-
The Administration will seek additional input from, among others,
the scientific, library, and academic communities and the commercial
sector, in order to develop U.S. policy with respect to sui
generis database protection.
-
Patents
-
Development of the GII will both depend upon and stimulate
innovation in many fields of technology, including computer
software, computer hardware, and telecommunications. An effectively
functioning patent system that encourages and protects patentable
innovations in these fields is important for the overall success of
commerce over the Internet. Consistent with this objective, the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) will (1) significantly enhance its
collaboration with the private sector to assemble a larger, more
complete collection of prior art (both patent and non-patent
publications), and provide its patent examiners better access to
prior art in GII-related technologies; (2) train its patent
examiners in GII-related technologies to raise and maintain their
level of technical expertise; and (3) support legislative proposals
for early publication of pending patent applications, particularly
in areas involving fast moving technology.
-
To create a reliable environment for electronic commerce, patent
agreements should:
prohibit member countries from authorizing parties to exploit
patented inventions related to the GII without the patent owner's
authority (i.e., disapproval of compulsory licensing of GII- related
technology except to remedy a practice determined after judicial or
administrative process to be anti-competitive);
require member countries to provide adequate and effective
protection for patentable subject matter important to the
development and success of the GII; and
establish international standards for determining the
validity of a patent claim.
- The United States will pursue these
objectives internationally. Officials of the European, Japanese, and
United States Patent Offices meet, for example, each year to foster
cooperation on patent-related issues. The United States will
recommend at the next meeting that a special committee be
established within the next year to make recommendations on
GII-related patent issues .
-
In a separate venue, one hundred countries and international
intergovernmental organizations participate as members of WIPO's
permanent committee on industrial property information (PCIPI). The
United States will attempt to establish a working group of this
organization to address GII-related patent issues.
-
Trademark and Domain Names
-
Trademark rights are national in scope and conflicts may arise where
the same or similar trademarks for similar goods or services are
owned by different parties in different countries. Countries may
also apply different standards for determining infringement.
-
Conflicts have arisen on the GII where third parties have registered
Internet domain names that are the same as, or similar to,
registered or common law trademarks. An Internet domain name
functions as a source identifier on the Internet. Ordinarily, source
identifiers, like addresses, are not protected intellectual property
(i.e., a trademark) per se. The use of domain names as source
identifiers has burgeoned, however, and courts have begun to
attribute intellectual property rights to them, while recognizing
that misuse of a domain name could significantly infringe, dilute,
and weaken valuable trademark rights.
-
To date, conflicts between trademark rights and domain names have
been resolved through negotiations and/or litigation. It may be
possible to create a contractually based self- regulatory regime
that deals with potential conflicts between domain name usage and
trademark laws on a global basis without the need to litigate. This
could create a more stable business environment on the Internet.
Accordingly, the United States will support efforts already underway
to create domestic and international fora for discussion of
Internet-related trademark issues. The Administration also plans to
seek public input on the resolution of trademark disputes in the
context of domain names.
-
Governance of the domain name system (DNS) raises other important
issues unrelated to intellectual property. The Administration
supports private efforts to address Internet governance issues
including those related to domain names and has formed an
interagency working group under the leadership of the Department of
Commerce to study DNS issues. The working group will review various
DNS proposals, consulting with interested private sector, consumer,
professional, congressional and state government and international
groups. The group will consider, in light of public input, (1) what
contribution government might make, if any, to the development of a
global competitive, market-based system to register Internet domain
names, and (2) how best to foster bottom-up governance of the
Internet.
-
5. PRIVACY
-
Americans treasure privacy, linking it to our concept of personal
freedom and well- being. Unfortunately, the GII's great promise --
that it facilitates the collection, re-use, and instantaneous
transmission of information -- can, if not managed carefully,
diminish personal privacy. It is essential, therefore, to assure
personal privacy in the networked environment if people are to feel
comfortable doing business.
-
At the same time, fundamental and cherished principles like the
First Amendment, which is an important hallmark of American
democracy, protect the free flow of information. Commerce on the GII
will thrive only if the privacy rights of individuals are balanced
with the benefits associated with the free flow of information.
-
In June of 1995, the Privacy Working Group of the United States
government Information Infrastructure Task Force (IITF) issued a
report entitled, PRIVACY AND THE NATIONAL INFORMATION
INFRASTRUCTURE: Principles for Providing and Using Personal
Information. The report recommends a set of principles (the "Privacy
Principles") to govern the collection, processing, storage, and
re-use of personal data in the information age.
-
These Privacy Principles, which build on the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development's GUIDELINES GOVERNING THE
PROTECTION OF PRIVACY AND TRANSBORDER DATA FLOW OF PERSONAL DATA and
incorporate principles of fair information practices, rest on the
fundamental precepts of awareness and choice:
Data-gatherers should inform consumers what information they are
collecting, and how they intend to use such data; and
Data-gatherers should provide consumers with a meaningful way
to limit use and re-use of personal information.
- Disclosure by data-gatherers is
designed to stimulate market resolution of privacy concerns by
empowering individuals to obtain relevant knowledge about why
information is being collected, what the information will be used
for, what steps will be taken to protect that information, the
consequences of providing or withholding information, and any rights
of redress that they may have. Such disclosure will enable consumers
to make better judgments about the levels of privacy available and
their willingness to participate.
-
In addition, the Privacy Principles identify three values to govern
the way in which personal information is acquired, disclosed and
used online -- information privacy, information integrity, and
information quality. First, an individual's reasonable expectation
of privacy regarding access to and use of, his or her personal
information should be assured. Second, personal information should
not be improperly altered or destroyed. And, third, personal
information should be accurate, timely, complete, and relevant for
the purposes for which it is provided and used.
-
Under these principles, consumers are entitled to redress if they
are harmed by improper use or disclosure of personal information or
if decisions are based on inaccurate, outdated, incomplete, or
irrelevant personal information.
-
In April, 1997, the Information Policy Committee of the IITF issued
a draft paper entitled Options For Promoting Privacy on the National
Information Infrastructure. The paper surveys information practices
in the United States and solicits public comment on the best way to
implement the Privacy Principles. The IITF goal is to find a way to
balance the competing values of personal privacy and the free flow
of information in a digital democratic society.
-
Meanwhile, other federal agencies have studied privacy issues in the
context of specific industry sectors. In October 1995, for example,
the National Telecommunications and Information Administration
(NTIA) issued a report entitled Privacy and the NII: Safeguarding
Telecommunications-Related Personal Information. It explores the
application of the Privacy Principles in the context of
telecommunications and online services and advocates a voluntary
framework based on notice and consent.7
On January 6, 1997, the FTC issued a staff report entitled Public
Workshop on Consumer Privacy on the Global Information
Infrastructure. The report, which focuses on the direct marketing
and advertising industries, concludes that notice, choice, security,
and access are recognized as necessary elements of fair information
practices online. In June of 1997, the FTC held four days of
hearings on technology tools and industry self-regulation regimes
designed to enhance personal privacy on the Internet.
-
The Administration supports private sector efforts now underway to
implement meaningful, consumer-friendly, self-regulatory privacy
regimes. These include mechanisms for facilitating awareness and the
exercise of choice online, evaluating private sector adoption of and
adherence to fair information practices, and dispute resolution.
-
The Administration also anticipates that technology will offer
solutions to many privacy concerns in the online environment,
including the appropriate use of anonymity. If privacy concerns are
not addressed by industry through self-regulation and technology,
the Administration will face increasing pressure to play a more
direct role in safeguarding consumer choice regarding privacy
online.
-
The Administration is particularly concerned about the use of
information gathered from children, who may lack the cognitive
ability to recognize and appreciate privacy concerns. Parents should
be able to choose whether or not personally identifiable information
is collected from or about their children. We urge industry,
consumer, and child-advocacy groups working together to use a mix of
technology, self-regulation, and education to provide solutions to
the particular dangers arising in this area and to facilitate
parental choice. This problem warrants prompt attention. Otherwise,
government action may be required.
-
Privacy concerns are being raised in many countries around the
world, and some countries have enacted laws, implemented industry
self-regulation, or instituted administrative solutions designed to
safeguard their citizens' privacy. Disparate policies could emerge
that might disrupt transborder data flows. For example, the European
Union (EU) has adopted a Directive that prohibits the transfer of
personal data to countries that, in its view, do not extend adequate
privacy protection to EU citizens.
-
To ensure that differing privacy policies around the world do not
impede the flow of data on the Internet, the United States will
engage its key trading partners in discussions to build support for
industry-developed solutions to privacy problems and for market
driven mechanisms to assure customer satisfaction about how private
data is handled.
-
The United States will continue policy discussions with the EU
nations and the European Commission to increase understanding about
the U.S. approach to privacy and to assure that the criteria they
use for evaluating adequacy are sufficiently flexible to accommodate
our approach. These discussions are led by the Department of
Commerce, through NTIA, and the State Department, and include the
Executive Office of the President, the Treasury Department, the
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and other relevant federal agencies.
NTIA is also working with the private sector to assess the impact
that the implementation of the EU Directive could have on the United
States.
-
The United States also will enter into a dialogue with trading
partners on these issues through existing bilateral fora as well as
through regional fora such as the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) forum, the Summit of the Americas, the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Inter-American Telecommunications
Commission (CITEL) of the Organization of American States, and
broader multilateral organizations.
-
The Administration considers data protection critically important.
We believe that private efforts of industry working in cooperation
with consumer groups are preferable to government regulation, but if
effective privacy protection cannot be provided in this way, we will
reevaluate this policy.
-
6. SECURITY
-
The GII must be secure and reliable. If Internet users do not have
confidence that their communications and data are safe from
unauthorized access or modification, they will be unlikely to use
the Internet on a routine basis for commerce.
-
A secure GII requires:
secure and reliable telecommunications networks;
effective means for protecting the information systems
attached to those networks;
effective means for authenticating and ensuring
confidentiality of electronic information to protect data from
unauthorized use; and
well trained GII users who understand how to protect their
systems and their data.
- There is no single "magic"
technology or technique that can ensure that the GII will be secure
and reliable. Accomplishing that goal requires a range of
technologies (encryption, authentication, password controls,
firewalls, etc.) and effective, consistent use of those
technologies, all supported globally by trustworthy key and security
management infrastructures.
-
Of particular importance is the development of trusted certification
services that support the digital signatures that will permit users
to know whom they are communicating with on the Internet. Both
signatures and confidentiality rely on the use of cryptographic
keys. To promote the growth of a trusted electronic commerce
environment, the Administration is encouraging the development of a
voluntary, market-driven key management infrastructure that will
support authentication, integrity, and confidentiality.
-
Encryption products protect the confidentiality of stored data and
electronic communications by making them unreadable without a
decryption key. But strong encryption is a double-edged sword. Law
abiding citizens can use strong encryption to protect their trade
secrets and personal records. But those trade secrets and personal
records could be lost forever if the decrypt key is lost. Depending
upon the value of the information, the loss could be quite
substantial. Encryption can also be used by criminals and terrorists
to reduce law enforcement capabilities to read their communications.
Key recovery based encryption can help address some of these issues.
-
In promoting robust security needed for electronic commerce, the
Administration has already taken steps that will enable trust in
encryption and provide the safeguards that users and society will
need. The Administration, in partnership with industry, is taking
steps to promote the development of market-driven standards,
public-key management infrastructure services and key recoverable
encryption products. Additionally, the Administration has
liberalized export controls for commercial encryption products while
protecting public safety and national security interests.
-
The Administration is also working with Congress to ensure
legislation is enacted that would facilitate development of
voluntary key management infrastructures and would govern the
release of recovery information to law enforcement officials
pursuant to lawful authority.
-
The U.S. government will work internationally to promote development
of market- driven key management infrastructure with key recovery.
Specifically, the U.S. has worked closely within the OECD to develop
international guidelines for encryption policies and will continue
to promote the development of policies to provide a predictable and
secure environment for global electronic commerce.
III. Market Access
Issues
- 7.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
-
Global electronic commerce depends upon a modern, seamless, global
telecommunications network and upon the computers and "information
appliances" that connect to it.8
Unfortunately, in too many countries, telecommunications policies
are hindering the development of advanced digital networks.
Customers find that telecommunications services often are too
expensive, bandwidth is too limited, and services are unavailable or
unreliable. Likewise, many countries maintain trade barriers to
imported information technology, making it hard for both merchants
and customers to purchase the computers and information systems they
need to participate in electronic commerce.
-
In order to spur the removal of barriers, in March 1994, Vice
President Gore spoke to the World Telecommunications Development
Conference in Buenos Aires. He articulated several principles that
the U.S. believes should be the foundation for government policy,
including:
encouraging private sector investment by privatizing
government-controlled telecommunications companies;
promoting and preserving competition by introducing
competition to monopoly phone markets, ensuring interconnection at
fair prices, opening markets to foreign investment, and enforcing
anti-trust safeguards;
guaranteeing open access to networks on a non-discriminatory
basis, so that GII users have access to the broadest range of
information and services; and
implementing, by an independent regulator, pro-competitive
and flexible regulation that keeps pace with technological
development.9
- Domestically, the Administration
recognizes that there are various constraints in the present network
that may impede the evolution of services requiring higher
bandwidth. Administration initiatives include Internet II, or Next
Generation Internet. In addition, the FCC has undertaken several
initiatives designed to stimulate bandwidth expansion, especially to
residential and small/home office customers.
-
The goal of the United States will be to ensure that online service
providers can reach end-users on reasonable and nondiscriminatory
terms and conditions. Genuine market opening will lead to increased
competition, improved telecommunications infrastructures, more
customer choice, lower prices and increased and improved services.
-
Areas of concern include:
Leased lines: Data networks of most online service providers
are constructed with leased lines that must be obtained from
national telephone companies, often monopolies or governmental
entities. In the absence of effective competition, telephone
companies may impose artificially inflated leased line prices and
usage restrictions that impede the provision of service by online
service providers.
Local loops pricing: To reach their subscribers,
online service providers often have no choice but to purchase local
exchange services from monopoly or government-owned telephone
companies. These services also are often priced at excessive rates,
inflating the cost of data services to customers.
Interconnection and unbundling: Online service
providers must be able to interconnect with the networks of
incumbent telecommunication companies so that information can pass
seamlessly between all users of the network. Monopolies or dominant
telephone companies often price interconnection well above cost, and
refuse to interconnect because of alleged concerns about "network
compatibility" or "absence of need for other providers."
Attaching equipment to the network: Over the years,
some telecommunication providers have used their monopoly power to
restrict the connection of communication or technology devices to
the network. Even when the monopoly has been broken, a host of
unnecessary burdensome "type acceptance" practices have
been used to retard competition and make it difficult for consumers
to connect.
Internet voice and multimedia: Officials of some
nations claim that "real time" services provided over the
Internet are "like services" to traditionally regulated
voice telephony and broadcasting, and therefore should be subject to
the same regulatory restrictions that apply to those traditional
services. In some countries, these providers must be licensed, as a
way to control both the carriage and content offered. Such an
approach could hinder the development of new technologies and new
services.
- In addition, countries have
different levels of telecommunications infrastructure development,
which may hinder the global provision and use of some Internet-based
services. The Administration believes that the introduction of
policies promoting foreign investment, competition, regulatory
flexibility and open access will support infrastructure development
and the creation of more data-friendly networks.
-
To address these issues, the Administration successfully concluded
the WTO Basic Telecommunications negotiations, which will ensure
global competition in the provision of basic telecommunication
services and will address the many underlying issues affecting
online service providers. During those negotiations, the U.S.
succeeded in ensuring that new regulatory burdens would not be
imposed upon online service providers that would stifle the
deployment of new technologies and services.
-
As the WTO Agreement is implemented, the Administration will seek to
ensure that new rules of competition in the global communications
marketplace will be technology neutral and will not hinder the
development of electronic commerce. In particular, rules for
licensing new technologies and new services must be sufficiently
flexible to accommodate the changing needs of consumers while
allowing governments to protect important public interest objectives
like universal service. In this context, rules to promote such
public interest objectives should not fall disproportionately on any
one segment of the telecommunications industry or on new entrants.
-
The Administration will also seek effective implementation of the
Information Technology Agreement concluded by the members of the WTO
in March 1997, which is designed to remove tariffs on almost all
types of information technology. Building on this success, and with
the encouragement of U.S. companies, the administration is
developing plans for ITA II, in which it will to seek to remove
remaining tariffs on, and existing non-tariff barriers to,
information technology goods and services. In addition, the
Administration is committed to finding other ways to streamline
requirements to demonstrate product conformity, including through
"Mutual Recognition Agreements" (MRAS) that can eliminate
the need for a single product to be certified by different standards
laboratories across national borders.
-
Bilateral exchanges with individual foreign governments, regional
fora such as APEC and CITEL, and multilateral fora such as the OECD
and ITU, and various other fora (i.e. international alliances
of private businesses, the International Organization of
Standardization [ISO], the International Electrotechnical Commission
[IEC]), also will be used for international discussions on
telecommunication-related Internet issues and removing trade
barriers that inhibit the export of information technology. These
issues include the terms and conditions governing the exchange of
online traffic, addressing, and reliability. In all fora, U.S.
Government positions that might influence Internet pricing, service
delivery options or technical standards will reflect the principles
established in this paper and U.S. Government representatives will
survey the work of their study groups to ensure that this is the
case.
-
In addition, many Internet governance issues will best be dealt with
by means of private, open standards processes and contracts
involving participants from both government and the private sector.
The U.S. government will support industry initiatives aimed at
achieving the important goals outlined in this paper.
-
8. CONTENT
-
The U.S. government supports the broadest possible free flow of
information across international borders. This includes most
informational material now accessible and transmitted through the
Internet, including through World Wide Web pages, news and other
information services, virtual shopping malls, and entertainment
features, such as audio and video products, and the arts. This
principle extends to information created by commercial enterprises
as well as by schools, libraries, governments and other nonprofit
entities.
-
In contrast to traditional broadcast media, the Internet promises
users greater opportunity to shield themselves and their children
from content they deem offensive or inappropriate. New technology,
for example, may enable parents to block their children's access to
sensitive information or confine their children to pre-approved
websites.
-
To the extent, then, that effective filtering technology becomes
available, content regulations traditionally imposed on radio and
television would not need to be applied to the Internet. In fact,
unnecessary regulation could cripple the growth and diversity of the
Internet.
-
The Administration therefore supports industry self-regulation,
adoption of competing ratings systems, and development of
easy-to-use technical solutions (e.g., filtering technologies
and age verification systems) to assist in screening information
online.
-
There are four priority areas of concern:
Regulation of content. Companies wishing to do business over
the Internet, and to provide access to the Internet (including U.S.
online service providers with foreign affiliates or joint ventures)
are concerned about liability based on the different policies of
every country through which their information may travel.
Countries that are considering or have adopted laws to restrict
access to certain types of content through the Internet emphasize
different concerns as a result of cultural, social, and political
difference. These different laws can impede electronic commerce in
the global environment.
The Administration is concerned about Internet regulation of this
sort, and will develop an informal dialogue with key trading
partners on public policy issues such as hate speech, violence,
sedition, pornography and other content to ensure that differences
in national regulation, especially those undertaken to foster
cultural identity, do not serve as disguised trade barriers.
Foreign content quotas. Some countries currently
require that a specific proportion of traditional broadcast
transmission time be devoted to "domestically produced"
content. Problems could arise on the Internet if the definition of
"broadcasting" is changed to extend these current
regulations to "new services." Countries also might decide
to regulate Internet content and establish restrictions under
administrative authority, rather than under broadcast regulatory
structures.
The Administration will pursue a dialogue with other nations on
how to promote content diversity, including cultural and linguistic
diversity, without limiting content. These discussions could
consider promotion of cultural identity through subsidy programs
that rely solely on general tax revenues and that are implemented in
a nondiscriminatory manner.
Regulation of advertising. Advertising will allow the
new interactive media to offer more affordable products and services
to a wider, global audience. Some countries stringently restrict the
language, amount, frequency, duration, and type of tele-shopping and
advertising spots used by advertisers. In principle, the United
States does not favor such regulations. While recognizing legitimate
cultural and social concerns, these concerns should not be invoked
to justify unnecessarily burdensome regulation of the Internet.
There are laws in many countries around the world that require
support for advertising claims. Advertising industry self-regulation
also exists in many countries around the globe. Truthful and
accurate advertising should be the cornerstone of advertising on all
media, including the Internet.
A strong body of cognitive and behavioral research demonstrates
that children are particularly vulnerable to advertising. As a
result, the U.S. has well established rules (self- regulatory and
otherwise) for protecting children from certain harmful advertising
practices. The Administration will work with industry and childrens
advocates to ensure that these protections are translated to and
implemented appropriately in the online media environment.
The rules of the "country-of-origin" should serve as
the basis for controlling Internet advertising to alleviate national
legislative roadblocks and trade barriers.
Regulation to prevent fraud. Recently, there have been
a number of cases where fraudulent information on companies and
their stocks, and phony investment schemes have been broadcast on
the Internet. The appropriate federal agencies (i.e., Federal Trade
Commission and the Securities and Exchange Commission) are
determining whether new regulations are needed to prevent fraud over
the Internet.
In order to realize the commercial and cultural potential of the
Internet, consumers must have confidence that the goods and services
offered are fairly represented, that they will get what they pay
for, and that recourse or redress will be available if they do not.
This is an area where government action is appropriate.
The Administration will explore opportunities for international
cooperation to protect consumers and to prosecute false, deceptive,
and fraudulent commercial practices in cyberspace.
- Federal agencies such as the
Department of State, U.S. Trade Representative (USTR), the Commerce
Department (NTIA), the FTC, the Office of Consumer Affairs and
others have already engaged in efforts to promote such positions,
through both bilateral and multilateral channels, including through
the OECD, the G-7 Information Society and Development Conference,
the Latin American Telecommunications Summits, and the Summit of the
Americas process, as well as APEC Telecommunications Ministerials.
All agencies participating in such fora will focus on pragmatic
solutions based upon the principles in this paper to issues related
to content control.
-
9. TECHNICAL STANDARDS
-
Standards are critical to the long term commercial success of the
Internet as they can allow products and services from different
vendors to work together. They also encourage competition and reduce
uncertainty in the global marketplace. Premature standardization,
however, can "lock in" outdated technology. Standards also
can be employed as de facto non-tariff trade barriers, to
"lock out" non-indigenous businesses from a particular
national market.
-
The United States believes that the marketplace, not governments,
should determine technical standards and other mechanisms for
interoperability. Technology is moving rapidly and government
attempts to establish technical standards to govern the Internet
would only risk inhibiting technological innovation. The United
States considers it unwise and unnecessary for governments to
mandate standards for electronic commerce. Rather, we urge industry
driven multilateral fora to consider technical standards in this
area.
-
To ensure the growth of global electronic commerce over the
Internet, standards will be needed to assure reliability,
interoperability, ease of use and scalability in areas such as:
electronic payments;
security (confidentiality, authentication, data integrity,
access control, non-repudiation);
security services infrastructure (e.g., public key
certificate authorities);
electronic copyright management systems;
video and data-conferencing;
high-speed network technologies (e.g., Asynchronous
Transfer Mode, Synchronous Digital Hierarchy); and
digital object and data interchange.
- There need not be one standard for
every product or service associated with the GII, and technical
standards need not be mandated. In some cases, multiple standards
will compete for marketplace acceptance. In other cases, different
standards will be used in different circumstances.
-
The prevalence of voluntary standards on the Internet, and the
medium's consensus- based process of standards development and
acceptance are stimulating its rapid growth. These standards
flourish because of a non-bureaucratic system of development managed
by technical practitioners working through various organizations.
These organizations require demonstrated deployment of systems
incorporating a given standard prior to formal acceptance, but the
process facilitates rapid deployment of standards and can
accommodate evolving standards as well. Only a handful of countries
allow private sector standards development; most rely on government-
mandated solutions, causing these nations to fall behind the
technological cutting edge and creating non-tariff trade barriers.
-
Numerous private sector bodies have contributed to the process of
developing voluntary standards that promote interoperability. The
United States has encouraged the development of voluntary standards
through private standards organizations, consortia, testbeds and R&D
activities.10 The U.S. government
also has adopted a set of principles to promote acceptance of
domestic and international voluntary standards.
-
While no formal government-sponsored negotiations are called for at
this time, the United States will use various fora (i.e.,
international alliances of private businesses, the International
Organization for Standardization [ISO], the International
Electrotechnical Commission [IEC], International Telecommunications
Union [ITU], etc.) to discourage the use of standards to erect
barriers to free trade on the developing GII. The private sector
should assert global leadership to address standards setting needs.
The United States will work through intergovernmental organizations
as needed to monitor and support private sector leadership.
A COORDINATED STRATEGY
- The success of electronic commerce
will require an effective partnership between the private and public
sectors, with the private sector in the lead. Government
participation must be coherent and cautious, avoiding the
contradictions and confusions that can sometimes arise when
different governmental agencies individually assert authority too
vigorously and operate without coordination.
-
The variety of issues being raised, the interaction among them, and
the disparate fora in which they are being addressed will
necessitate a coordinated, targeted governmental approach to avoid
inefficiencies and duplication in developing and reviewing policy.
-
An interagency team will continue to meet in order to monitor
progress and update this strategy as events unfold. Sufficient
resources will be committed to allow rapid and effective policy
implementation.
-
The process of further developing and implementing the strategy set
forth in this paper is as important as the content of the paper
itself. The U.S. Government will consult openly and often, with
groups representing industry, consumers and Internet users,
Congress, state and local governments, foreign governments, and
international organizations as we seek to update and implement this
paper in the coming years.
-
Private sector leadership accounts for the explosive growth of the
Internet today, and the success of electronic commerce will depend
on continued private sector leadership. Accordingly, the
Administration also will encourage the creation of private fora to
take the lead in areas requiring self-regulation such as privacy,
content ratings, and consumer protection and in areas such as
standards development, commercial code, and fostering
interoperability.
-
The strategy outlined in this paper will be updated and new releases
will be issued as changes in technology and the marketplace teach us
more about how to set the optimal environment in which electronic
commerce and community can flourish.
-
There is a great opportunity for commercial activity on the
Internet. If the private sector and governments act appropriately,
this opportunity can be realized for the benefit of all people.
NOTES:
1. The Administration's concept of the Global
Information Infrastructure (GII) includes wired and wireless
networks; information appliances such as computers, set-top boxes,
video phones, and personal digital assistants; all of the
information, applications and services accessible over these
networks; and the skills required to build, design and use these
information and communications technologies. The Internet is a global
matrix of interconnected computer networks using the Internet
Protocol (IP) to communicate with each other. For simplicity, the
term "Internet" is used throughout this paper to encompass
all such data networks and hundreds of applications such as the World
Wide Web and e-mail that run on those networks, even though some
electronic commerce activities may take place on proprietary or other
networks that are not technically part of the Internet. The term
"online service provider" is used to refer to companies and
nongovernmental institutions such as libraries and schools that
provide access to the Internet and other online services, and groups
that create content that is delivered over those networks.
2. The Administration has directed federal
agencies to employ digital communications tools in their day to day
operations. Examples include enabling students to apply for and
receive federal college loans online, automating and streamlining
federal procurement or grant applications, and providing small
business owners with information and guidance about business
opportunities overseas. See "Government Information Technology
Board, Access America", formalized by Executive Order
Federal Information Technology (July 6, 1996).
3. "Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Survey of Private Services Transactions"
(Nov. 1996). The estimate covers 1995 and does not include
transactions between affiliated companies, which could add as much as
$47 billion in additional exports.
4. Such commercial activity already has begun,
with 1995 sales estimated at $200 million. See "American
Electronics Association/American University, Internet Commerce"
(Sept. 1996).
5. Recognizing the important role that
government can play, the Administration already has provided strong
support for the development of the GII. In 1993, it issued a report
entitled "NII: Agenda for Action". The 1995 "GII:
Agenda for Cooperation" extended the vision of the National
Information Infrastructure (NII) to a global platform.
6. E.g., the Committee on Payments and
Settlement Systems of the Bank for International Settlements, the
Basle Committee on Banking Supervision, and the Financial Action Task
Force.
7. NTIA concluded that opt-in consent
(information cannot be used without the data subject's explicit
authorization) is necessary for sensitive information, such as
personally identifiable medical information, and opt-out consent
(information may be used if the data subject does not explicitly say
that it may not be used after meaningful notice) is sufficient for
non-sensitive information. Since publishing its report, NTIA has
continued to investigate how the private sector can develop and
implement meaningful self-regulatory regimes.
8. For purposes of this paper, the term
"telecommunications" encompasses voice telephony and data
services, including information access technology.
9. These principles were elaborated in "Global
Information Infrastructure: An Agenda for Cooperation," released
by the Administration in February, 1995.
10. Examples include government support for
6bone, an IPv6 testbed; DARPA's support for CommerceNet, the World
Wide Web Consortium, and research on multicast and quality of
service; NSF's support for the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol;
and NIST's development of tools for testing compliance with the
Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) standard.
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